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South Africa has experienced an exponential increase in organized crime over the past decade. The government has implemented strategies to combat organised crime, however, the lack of institutional strength, corruption, and cooperation among agencies have hindered their efforts. A growing debate is on whether socioeconomic uncertainties and instability are responsible for the growth of organized crime. The objective of this paper was to explore the challenges faced by the government to address organised crime in South Africa with a focus on the policy framework and the intent of government institutions to address this phenomenon. The study used the Social Disorganised Theory to explore whether the rise in organized crime can be attributed to social instability, economic deprivation, and lack of social cohesion which in turn influences individuals to engage in criminal activities. The methodology adopted in this paper is qualitative and data was collected using secondary sources and materials. The findings indicate that organised crime is increasing in South Africa and across borders due to the lack of political will, management, expertise, and skills of law enforcement agencies to fight organised crime. The findings also indicate that there is an increase in corruption within agencies mandated to carry out the portfolios of fighting and reducing organised crime leading to a subsequent illusion that policies and security are insufficient and unstable. The study argues that to combat organised crime in South Africa, the government must address issues such as inter alia, lack of political will, corruption, lack of institutional capacity and lack of collaboration through the proposed nine steps model.

Human trafficking in Africa has evolved from localised criminal exploits into a complex multi- Human trafficking in Africa has transitioned from isolated criminal exploits into a complex, multi-scalar shadow business ecosystem that intersects directly with transnational organised networks, systemic corruption, and regional conflict corridors. This paper provides a strategic, interdisciplinary analysis of the enterprise dynamics of trafficking in persons (TIP) across three distinct geographical tiers: the domestic landscape of South Africa, the regional migration and supply corridors of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the overarching regulatory frameworks of the African Union (AU). Utilising a systematic policy document analysis and qualitative content analysis of peer-reviewed research, institutional reports, and statutory frameworks active between 2015 and 2026, this study interrogates the systemic friction between state-centric border-containment mechanisms and enterprise-level human-asset protections. A qualitative content analysis of 60 core documents, conducted in NVivo 14, yielded 342 distinct text codes, illustrating how regulatory conflicts, supply-chain vulnerabilities, and institutional corruption stabilise illicit operations across the African continent. The empirical findings reveal that while robust legal frameworks exist, severe execution gaps persist due to strategic intelligence failures and a lack of cross-border data synchronisation. Specifically, this paper illuminates the emerging trafficking-mercenary nexus, wherein deceptive digital human-resource recruitment practices exploit socio-economic market gaps to trap individuals into forced combat servitude or illicit cyber-scam operations. Ultimately, this study proposes a harmonised, multi-tiered response architecture that links subnational vulnerability mapping with regional supply-chain tracking, transforming anti-trafficking strategic interventions from reactive containment into proactive, structurally integrated corporate and public protection systems.

Extortion through protection fees has become a major challenge to small businesses in rural towns of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This study examines how extortion operates as a form of localised criminal governance and its socio-economic effects on small business owners. The researcher adopted a qualitative approach, conducting semi-structured interviews with 12 small business owners and 4 key informants, including local government officials and community leaders, in 3 rural towns in the Eastern Cape. Thematic analysis showed that the issue of extortion arises from systematic demands for protection fees and the creation of parallel governance structures that undermine state authority, leading to significant socio-economic consequences, such as business closures, decreased investment, job losses, and psychological distress. The findings also suggest that perpetrators target vulnerabilities, including the absence of the state, economic disparities, to establish territorial power, and withdraw resources from both sectors, the informal and formal economy. The study concludes by emphasising that extortion is not only criminal opportunism but also reflects institutional failures in governance that affect the success of economic development, state legitimacy, and social cohesion in rural areas. Strategies to improve must focus on both law enforcement limitations and the underlying socio-economic challenges that enhance criminal behaviours. This study contributes to the advancement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) by highlighting threats to small business sustainability, SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) through its focus on criminal governance and weakened state authority, and SDG 1 (No Poverty) by demonstrating how extortion exacerbates economic vulnerability in rural communities. Key Terms: Extortion; Protection fees; Criminal governance; Rural crime; Small businesses; Eastern Cape; Informal economy, Local governance

The research focused on the contribution of forensic accounting to the detection and prevention of money laundering in Zimbabwe. It sought to find out how forensic accounting methods are implemented, evaluate their effectiveness in ensuring compliance with the recommendations of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), assess the contribution of forensic accountants to the activities of the Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU), understand the institutional challenges of implementation, and create an integrated forensic accounting model. The researchers used a mixed-methods design. Quantitative data were gathered through 235 structured questionnaires, and qualitative data were obtained from 15 purposively selected key informants. Quantitative data were processed using descriptive statistics, correlation, and multiple regression techniques in SPSS. Qualitative data were analysed thematically to determine the main themes and stakeholder views. The results showed that forensic accounting techniques, such as transaction tracing, risk-based auditing, and the use of technology, are extensively practised and, thus, significantly facilitate the identification of suspicious transactions. These activities positively influence the compliance of the FATF, primarily through regular audits and reporting. Nevertheless, limited funding, lack of sufficient training, and poor cooperation between agencies were some of the challenges that prevented the agency's effectiveness. The regression results reveal that the use of forensic accounting techniques, compliance with FATF standards, contributions from the FIU, and technological integration are factors that significantly improve the effectiveness of AML. On the other hand, institutional challenges have a negative impact on the effectiveness of AML, thus the need for a coordinated approach is confirmed. The study recommends integrating the use of technology, joint training, and regulatory compliance into a comprehensive forensic accounting model.

In recent years, South Africa has witnessed a rise in diverse criminal activities, including violent crime, armed robbery, domestic violence, rape, heists, murder, drug abuse, theft, organised crime, cybercrime, social media offences, gangsterism, ritual killings, cultism, smuggling, the import and sale of contraband, and human and drug trafficking. Enhancing the abilities and competencies of criminal justice officials responsible for preventing, reducing, investigating, and prosecuting crime is crucial for achieving success in the fight against crime. This study seeks to discover comprehensive tools and techniques to reduce cash-in-transit robbery thefts in South Africa. A mixed-method approach was employed for data collecting, integrating qualitative and quantitative methodologies, such as interviews and questionnaires. Findings indicated alarming escalations in violent crime and cash-in-transit heists in South Africa. Technological improvements and inventions have led to an increase in sophisticated criminal activities both in South Africa and elsewhere. Cash-in-transit crime adversely impacts the nation's economy, leading to significant financial losses for institutions and resulting in numerous fatalities. It is essential to analyse the root causes of cash-in-transit crimes to implement preventive measures; hence, enhancing the capacity of police, law enforcement, and private security personnel to collect and utilise intelligence is necessary for the prevention and reduction of cash-in-transit robberies. Intelligence-led policing techniques should be implemented to target criminals and mitigate cash-in-transit crime in South African communities, as well as to prosecute offenders. Moreover, the implementation of multifaceted and holistic strategies, including spatial and crime mapping, focused deterrence, the prediction of prolific offenders, the identification and targeting of repeat offenders, crime intelligence, community intelligence, and inter-agency collaboration, is essential for an expedited response to crime incidents, as well as for the prevention and reduction of crime, investigation, prosecution, and sentencing of cash-in-transit heist offenders. It is essential for the criminal justice system, law enforcement, and security agencies to adopt intelligence-driven community policing, a holistic approach that prioritises the identification and prevention of habitual offenders, focussing on groups that pose a threat to the community. It utilises community intelligence in conjunction with other intelligence-driven policing techniques and approaches to combat crime and criminal activities.

Human trafficking in Africa has evolved from localised criminal exploits into a complex multi- Human trafficking in Africa has transitioned from isolated criminal exploits into a complex, multi-scalar shadow business ecosystem that intersects directly with transnational organised networks, systemic corruption, and regional conflict corridors. This paper provides a strategic, interdisciplinary analysis of the enterprise dynamics of trafficking in persons (TIP) across three distinct geographical tiers: the domestic landscape of South Africa, the regional migration and supply corridors of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the overarching regulatory frameworks of the African Union (AU). Utilising a systematic policy document analysis and qualitative content analysis of peer-reviewed research, institutional reports, and statutory frameworks active between 2015 and 2026, this study interrogates the systemic friction between state-centric border-containment mechanisms and enterprise-level human-asset protections. A qualitative content analysis of 60 core documents, conducted in NVivo 14, yielded 342 distinct text codes, illustrating how regulatory conflicts, supply-chain vulnerabilities, and institutional corruption stabilise illicit operations across the African continent. The empirical findings reveal that while robust legal frameworks exist, severe execution gaps persist due to strategic intelligence failures and a lack of cross-border data synchronisation. Specifically, this paper illuminates the emerging trafficking-mercenary nexus, wherein deceptive digital human-resource recruitment practices exploit socio-economic market gaps to trap individuals into forced combat servitude or illicit cyber-scam operations. Ultimately, this study proposes a harmonised, multi-tiered response architecture that links subnational vulnerability mapping with regional supply-chain tracking, transforming anti-trafficking strategic interventions from reactive containment into proactive, structurally integrated corporate and public protection systems.

Extortion through protection fees has become a major challenge to small businesses in rural towns of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This study examines how extortion operates as a form of localised criminal governance and its socio-economic effects on small business owners. The researcher adopted a qualitative approach, conducting semi-structured interviews with 12 small business owners and 4 key informants, including local government officials and community leaders, in 3 rural towns in the Eastern Cape. Thematic analysis showed that the issue of extortion arises from systematic demands for protection fees and the creation of parallel governance structures that undermine state authority, leading to significant socio-economic consequences, such as business closures, decreased investment, job losses, and psychological distress. The findings also suggest that perpetrators target vulnerabilities, including the absence of the state, economic disparities, to establish territorial power, and withdraw resources from both sectors, the informal and formal economy. The study concludes by emphasising that extortion is not only criminal opportunism but also reflects institutional failures in governance that affect the success of economic development, state legitimacy, and social cohesion in rural areas. Strategies to improve must focus on both law enforcement limitations and the underlying socio-economic challenges that enhance criminal behaviours. This study contributes to the advancement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) by highlighting threats to small business sustainability, SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) through its focus on criminal governance and weakened state authority, and SDG 1 (No Poverty) by demonstrating how extortion exacerbates economic vulnerability in rural communities. Key Terms: Extortion; Protection fees; Criminal governance; Rural crime; Small businesses; Eastern Cape; Informal economy, Local governance

The research focused on the contribution of forensic accounting to the detection and prevention of money laundering in Zimbabwe. It sought to find out how forensic accounting methods are implemented, evaluate their effectiveness in ensuring compliance with the recommendations of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), assess the contribution of forensic accountants to the activities of the Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU), understand the institutional challenges of implementation, and create an integrated forensic accounting model. The researchers used a mixed-methods design. Quantitative data were gathered through 235 structured questionnaires, and qualitative data were obtained from 15 purposively selected key informants. Quantitative data were processed using descriptive statistics, correlation, and multiple regression techniques in SPSS. Qualitative data were analysed thematically to determine the main themes and stakeholder views. The results showed that forensic accounting techniques, such as transaction tracing, risk-based auditing, and the use of technology, are extensively practised and, thus, significantly facilitate the identification of suspicious transactions. These activities positively influence the compliance of the FATF, primarily through regular audits and reporting. Nevertheless, limited funding, lack of sufficient training, and poor cooperation between agencies were some of the challenges that prevented the agency's effectiveness. The regression results reveal that the use of forensic accounting techniques, compliance with FATF standards, contributions from the FIU, and technological integration are factors that significantly improve the effectiveness of AML. On the other hand, institutional challenges have a negative impact on the effectiveness of AML, thus the need for a coordinated approach is confirmed. The study recommends integrating the use of technology, joint training, and regulatory compliance into a comprehensive forensic accounting model.

In recent years, South Africa has witnessed a rise in diverse criminal activities, including violent crime, armed robbery, domestic violence, rape, heists, murder, drug abuse, theft, organised crime, cybercrime, social media offences, gangsterism, ritual killings, cultism, smuggling, the import and sale of contraband, and human and drug trafficking. Enhancing the abilities and competencies of criminal justice officials responsible for preventing, reducing, investigating, and prosecuting crime is crucial for achieving success in the fight against crime. This study seeks to discover comprehensive tools and techniques to reduce cash-in-transit robbery thefts in South Africa. A mixed-method approach was employed for data collecting, integrating qualitative and quantitative methodologies, such as interviews and questionnaires. Findings indicated alarming escalations in violent crime and cash-in-transit heists in South Africa. Technological improvements and inventions have led to an increase in sophisticated criminal activities both in South Africa and elsewhere. Cash-in-transit crime adversely impacts the nation's economy, leading to significant financial losses for institutions and resulting in numerous fatalities. It is essential to analyse the root causes of cash-in-transit crimes to implement preventive measures; hence, enhancing the capacity of police, law enforcement, and private security personnel to collect and utilise intelligence is necessary for the prevention and reduction of cash-in-transit robberies. Intelligence-led policing techniques should be implemented to target criminals and mitigate cash-in-transit crime in South African communities, as well as to prosecute offenders. Moreover, the implementation of multifaceted and holistic strategies, including spatial and crime mapping, focused deterrence, the prediction of prolific offenders, the identification and targeting of repeat offenders, crime intelligence, community intelligence, and inter-agency collaboration, is essential for an expedited response to crime incidents, as well as for the prevention and reduction of crime, investigation, prosecution, and sentencing of cash-in-transit heist offenders. It is essential for the criminal justice system, law enforcement, and security agencies to adopt intelligence-driven community policing, a holistic approach that prioritises the identification and prevention of habitual offenders, focussing on groups that pose a threat to the community. It utilises community intelligence in conjunction with other intelligence-driven policing techniques and approaches to combat crime and criminal activities.

South Africa has experienced an exponential increase in organized crime over the past decade. The government has implemented strategies to combat organised crime, however, the lack of institutional strength, corruption, and cooperation among agencies have hindered their efforts. A growing debate is on whether socioeconomic uncertainties and instability are responsible for the growth of organized crime. The objective of this paper was to explore the challenges faced by the government to address organised crime in South Africa with a focus on the policy framework and the intent of government institutions to address this phenomenon. The study used the Social Disorganised Theory to explore whether the rise in organized crime can be attributed to social instability, economic deprivation, and lack of social cohesion which in turn influences individuals to engage in criminal activities. The methodology adopted in this paper is qualitative and data was collected using secondary sources and materials. The findings indicate that organised crime is increasing in South Africa and across borders due to the lack of political will, management, expertise, and skills of law enforcement agencies to fight organised crime. The findings also indicate that there is an increase in corruption within agencies mandated to carry out the portfolios of fighting and reducing organised crime leading to a subsequent illusion that policies and security are insufficient and unstable. The study argues that to combat organised crime in South Africa, the government must address issues such as inter alia, lack of political will, corruption, lack of institutional capacity and lack of collaboration through the proposed nine steps model.