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Climate change and agricultural transformation are increasingly affecting cocoa production in Sub-Saharan Africa, where smallholder farmers face growing environmental and socioeconomic constraints. This study investigates their effects on cocoa productivity in the Mvila Division of South Cameroon, with particular attention to agricultural modernization, rainfall variability, cooperative membership, fertilizer use, and farm-level characteristics. The study combines qualitative evidence from administrative and policy documents with quantitative data from cocoa farmers and secondary sources, including MINADER, IRAD, FAOSTAT, ICCO, CHIRPS, and the National Cocoa and Coffee Board. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, multiple regression, robustness tests, and scenario projections were used to assess productivity across five subdivisions. The results show that cooperative membership, favourable rainfall conditions, farmer education, fertilizer use, and farm size significantly increase cocoa productivity, while ageing plantations reduce yields. Agricultural transformation has also strengthened farmer organizations, extension services, and adoption of improved practices, although mechanization remains constrained by inadequate infrastructure, limited finance, and uneven institutional support. Ebolowa I and Ebolowa II consistently record higher productivity, associated with stronger institutional support and greater adoption of improved practices. The study contributes empirical evidence on the interaction between climate variability and agricultural transformation in cocoa-producing smallholder systems and highlights the importance of combining climate-smart practices, plantation rehabilitation, producer organizations, extension services, and appropriate mechanization to improve productivity and strengthen farmers' resilience in Cameroon.

Climate change poses significant risks to rural livelihoods in semi-arid regions such as Bikita District, Zimbabwe, where recurrent droughts, erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, and water scarcity undermine food security and socio-economic stability. This study examines the climate-related risks faced by rural households, identifies the coping and adaptation strategies they employ, and assesses the effectiveness and sustainability of these responses. A qualitative case study design, guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, was adopted. Data were collected through in-depth interviews (n = 30), focus group discussions (two groups), and direct observations involving households, traditional leaders, and local stakeholders. Thematic analysis was used to identify patterns in risks, coping strategies, and institutional constraints. The findings show that households employ diverse strategies, including crop diversification, cultivation of drought-resistant small grains, water harvesting, livestock downsizing, livelihood diversification, horticulture, and reliance on social networks. However, many of these responses remain short-term coping mechanisms rather than sustainable adaptation strategies. Structural barriers, including limited access to credit, weak extension services, poor infrastructure, and inadequate market systems, constrain their effectiveness. In addition, some practices, including deforestation and over-reliance on food aid, are maladaptive, providing immediate relief while undermining long-term resilience. The study concludes that although rural households demonstrate significant adaptive capacity, their transition from short-term coping to sustainable adaptation is limited by systemic and institutional constraints. It highlights the need for integrated policy interventions that strengthen livelihood assets, enhance institutional support, improve access to finance and markets, and integrate indigenous knowledge with climate-smart practices. These findings contribute to climate adaptation scholarship and provide policy-relevant insights for building long-term resilience in rural Zimbabwe.

Drawing on multi-wave panel data from over 5,000 households in the World Bank’s Living Standards Measurement Study–Integrated Surveys on Agriculture microdata across Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi, this study investigates how fertilizer subsidies interact with rainfall variability to influence maize productivity among East African smallholders. Using a difference-in-differences framework applied to household-level panel data combined with FAOSTAT indicators, the analysis compares yield responses of subsidy beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries under contrasting rainfall conditions. Results show that fertilizer subsidies significantly raise maize yields in normal rainfall years but provide limited benefits during drought or excessive precipitation, highlighting the conditional effectiveness of input support.  Cross-country differences reveal that program design, especially targeting efficiency and the timing of subsidy delivery, strongly shapes yield outcomes. The findings emphasize the importance of integrating fertilizer support with climate information services, soil health interventions, and adaptive policy mechanisms. This study contributes empirical evidence for designing climate-smart and context-sensitive subsidy systems aimed at enhancing resilience and food security in East Africa.